How Are the Thousands of Tomato Types Classified?

There are literally thousands of different tomato types out there and anyone who is new to the hobby of tomato gardening is sure to be confused as to what all of these classifications mean, and more importantly, which variety of tomato should they be planting? Fortunately, only a basic knowledge of the way tomatoes are classified is required to make an educated decision on a particular species that is right for you.

Determinate vs. Indeterminate

The first basic way tomato types are broken down is by the manner in which the plant grows. Determinate tomato plants are those that grow only to a specific height, and no higher. They are also known as bush tomato plants due to their appearance. Determinate tomato plants produce their crop of fruit during a short period of time, and then cease to produce any more tomatoes for the rest of the season. A good characteristic of these plants is that since they don't continue to grow to taller heights, they don't need to be supported by staking or caging. You can also get by skipping the pruning ritual too. Overall, the determinate tomato plant requires less maintenance by the gardener.

The indeterminate tomato plant, on the other hand, will continue to grow wildly and need to be supported by stakes or cages. One of the things many people prefer about the indeterminate is that it produces tomatoes all-season long. When you pick ripened tomatoes from this plant, you can be sure that it will continue to give you nice, delicious tomatoes throughout the rest of the growing season. These plants also commonly require more care and should be regularly pruned.

Heirloom vs. Hybrid

The next breakdown in tomato types is heirloom and hybrid. Everyone has surely heard of heirloom tomatoes, but most people don't know what it really means. To put it simply, it is a tomato variety that has been grown continually for 50 or more years, and has not been cross-pollinated or mixed with any other tomato species. The seeds are saved from the tomatoes and planted season after season to preserve the tomato's desirable properties. They are known to be the tastiest tomatoes around, and every tomato gardener longs to have a garden full of delicious heirlooms. Unfortunately, heirloom tomatoes are more susceptible to problems, such as fungal diseases and insect infestations. They usually don't produce as bountiful of a crop as hybrids do either.

That brings us to the alternative to the heirloom, which is known as a hybrid tomato. These tomatoes have been "engineered" to contain many of the best qualities of several different species of tomato by cross-breeding them together. They have been bred this way to be more disease resistant, less vulnerable to pests such as nematodes, and to produce a more reliable crop of the fruit. Hybrids were first designed by commercial growers, and are most likely to be the type you buy in the grocery store. I don't' have to tell you what you already know, store-bought tomatoes don't taste near as good as a home-grown heirloom. That's the negative of hybrids, but there are quite a few that have been developed that are quite flavorful, and you can try planting several to see which ones you like the best.

There are lots of factors that may influence which tomato types you ultimately decide to plant. Things to consider are your experience in gardening, how much time you have to tend to your tomatoes, and your priorities in the fruit that is grown. Some people want tomatoes all summer long for sandwiches and salads, and some like to jar all of their tomatoes for sauces and winter consumption. You should consider these and many other priorities when deciding on a type of tomato, but nobody says you can't plant 4 or 5 different types and enjoy them all!

Types of Orchids - It is About Orchid Plants, Not the Flowers

When discussing orchids the most basic distinction to be made is about the types of orchids. Most amateur orchid growers often say orchid types but they are actually referring to the orchid species.

Types of orchids is a reference to the most basic orchids' categorization and it does not refer to the many thousands different flowers. A different orchid flower is produced by a different orchid specie.

The categorization of orchid plants begins with distinguishing between the different types of orchid plants. Many beginner orchids lovers will be very surprised to find out that there are only two basic types of orchids; terrestrial and epiphytes, or aerial.

Occasionally we can run into one of the few exceptions to the rule and find an orchid which is both.

The terrestrial type of orchids grows similarly to any other garden plant by spreading its roots underground. Now, we should specify though that the 'ground' in most cases is not really ground, or at least not what we use in our gardens as plants soil.

This type of orchids are called terrestrial because they grow at 'ground level' but the composition of the soil they like to grow in is very different from what we usually call soil.

In their natural environment terrestrial orchids choose to grow at ground level in a tropical forest environment in a 'soil' which contains a very low percentage of minerals and mostly organic matters as dead wood, barks, decomposing leaves, insects, animals and a set of very active fungi.

So, basically the terrestrial type of orchids grows in natural occurring tropical forest compost... not in the ground. Keep that in mind when preparing the medium for this type of orchids.

As an example, the most popular of the terrestrial orchids' type are the several Cymbidiums species. Among them you can find all typical differences usually found among orchid plants. Some grow in low lights and need less water. Others need more light and more water.

In general though, the terrestrial orchids' type thrives in shadier settings compared to the aerial orchids' type.

The second of the two types of orchids, the aerial, are epiphytes. Scientifically speaking the term epiphytes is not specific of orchids. It is a general botanical term used to signify that the plant roots grow above ground.

Epiphytes orchids were originally though to be a sort of tree parasites which would take the necessary nutrients from the trees they like to grow on. It turns out though that they are actually very nice to the trees and don't take any of the tree nutrients.

Their roots slightly cling to the tree bark, just enough to falling or flying away in the wind. The aerial orchid plant roots store water either by absorbing humidity directly from the air or sucking up rain water.

Rain water also provides this type of orchids the nutrients by carrying minerals and organic material as it runs down the tree bark. Small insects, dirt and other debris get stuck between the roots and as they decompose they are absorbed and feed the plant.

That is exactly why when fertilizing our orchids we mix the minerals with the water and let the water run through medium and roots. We are basically trying to reproduce the way this type of orchids sustain themselves in their natural habitat.

As you become more experienced, just by paying attention to the color of the root you will be able to know when it is time to water your orchids. A healthy root system will be green when storing water, it will gradually become a lighter green as it dries up and eventually turn white, or almost white, when dry and in need of more water.

When you start caring for orchids though I suggest you use a moist meter to decide when it is time to water your plants. Moist meters are fairly inexpensive and they give you accurate readings on the amount of humidity within the orchid's medium.

That is my suggestion because different species in different locations will retain humidity differently, therefore needing watering at slightly different intervals.

As a rule of thumb the two types of orchids differ from each other by the amount of light they need. The terrestrial kind needs less light than the aerial type of orchids and the amount of light they receive determines how quickly the root system will dry up.

Different Types Of Planting Seeds To Plant In Spring Time

If you're thinking of planting flower seeds, you better get your gear ready and wait for spring to come. What makes the spring perfect for sowing new flower seeds are the spring rain and the mild temperatures of the season. For most cases, flower seeds can be planted when frost is no longer a threat. Particularly, annual flower seeds depend on warm weather and spring rain for it to withhold and blossom. When the flowers are not exposed to the rain due to warm weather, do make sure to generously water the flower seeds. When the condition of the soil is too dry, adding a potting soil or peat moss mixture would be helpful in ensuring the flower seeds develop and blossom into nice flowers.

You can consider planting flower seeds in other season of the year but the best outcome that you can get would always be when you start planting in the spring. The rain and the mild weather will allow the flower seeds to easily sprout. When the ground has finally softened and shows no symptoms of frosting again, you can ready the flower seeds for the garden. The best thing about planting in spring is you don't have to wait for the dormant period to settle and this would means a longer life span for your dear flowers. If you are living in dry areas, take extra care of your flowers and remember to water them regularly so they would have enough supplies to live. If the dry condition persists, you might want to add fertilizer, peat moss and mulch as well.

Though annual flower requires mild weather to grow, the more hardy annual flowers and those who have can actually withstand frosty ground can be planted at the very beginning of the spring season. Starting annual flower seeds indoors in the late winter or early spring and later transplanting them outdoors once the weather permits is a rather good choice for those who couldn't wait to see their flowers bloom. It also will lower the gardening budget as one would not have to purchase the expensive plants or seedlings from a nursery.

As we move on towards the middle of spring, where the weather is lovelier and the frost is long gone, regular annual seeds that require warm temperature can be planted. For hardy annuals you can plant them in the early spring as they have a strong resistance towards cold spring frost. While you plant your hardy annuals, you can simultaneously plant your regular annual flower indoors and later transplant them outdoor when the weather settles. Once you have the regular and hardy annual flowers in your garden, you can see the result of having the prettiest garden as your flower would bloom continuously throughout the season. Besides annual, a lot of other varieties of flower seeds also can be planted in the season of spring as well.

During the early spring, when the temperatures are still teasingly cold, perennial flowers can be planted naturally in the soil. This is because most of the varieties of perennial flowers need a little bit of cold weather to germinate before they began sprouting. This is also to ensure that they would have matured nicely and can withstand the cold and harsh condition when winter arrives. Not only that, growing perennial early in the spring would also guarantee that you would have a blooming garden with flowers earlier than any type flowers. Although not very suitable to plant in warm climate countries, those who simply insist of having them needs to keep them refrigerated before planting to give them time to germinate. Even if one is staying in a cold weather country, and had bought the seeds a little bit too late in the spring they still have to conduct the same practice of refrigerating these flowers. The beauty of perennial however is their life span as they can easily last for three years or more. Their life span would be longer if one takes good care of the seeds and nourish them appropriately.

During the early spring, when the temperatures are still teasingly cold, perennial flowers can be planted naturally in the soil. This is because most of the varieties of perennial flowers need a little bit of cold weather to germinate before they began sprouting. This is also to ensure that they would have matured nicely and can withstand the cold and harsh condition when winter arrives. Not only that, growing perennial early in the spring would also guarantee that you would have a blooming garden with flowers earlier than any type flowers. Although not very suitable to plant in warm climate countries, those who simply insist of having them needs to keep them refrigerated before planting to give them time to germinate. Even if one is staying in a cold weather country, and had bought the seeds a little bit too late in the spring they still have to conduct the same practice of refrigerating these flowers. The beauty of perennial however is their life span as they can easily last for three years or more. Their life span would be longer if one takes good care of the seeds and nourish them appropriately.

If you're the type who wants to start with a simple flower and one that does not really need TLC (tender, care and loving), you might want to try your hands on wildflowers. Even the name suggested that it's a very independent type of flower that requires very little maintenance. Its resilient nature is due to the fact because its root can take in easily in the soil. Another big plus to this flower is the cost of buying the seeds are relatively cheaper from other flower seeds. This would be good news for those who is still exploring about your gardening skills and are not very confident in it. And if you succeed in planting them, which I presume you will, you will be surprised at how beautiful these flowers can turn out to be.

However, it does not necessarily means that you should expect the flowers to grow without any intervention. Sometimes you may need to do some tilling of the ground, to get them a better chance at surviving. Apart from that, if you're staying at a hot or warm climate country, you still have to water these plants regularly. Because of the ease in which they can blossom almost effortlessly, there is no wonder why most countries around the word choose to plant them near highways and roads. This is not only to beautify the scenery and the country itself; wildflower is also a good and established method to prevent erosion from happening. So for those of you who want to try their hand on gardening at home, you might want to start with wildflowers. Happy gardening!

Which of Your Plants Fall Into This Category?

Different kinds of plants are categorized in many ways. One specific method classifies plants depending on how they are used. These uses include food, medicine, industry, or simple decoration.

Category number one is plant you can eat. These are plants that are cultivated by agriculturalists from farm crops, both commercial and privatized. These edible plants are the majority of what farms turn out. Most of the edible plants we are discussing are vegetables or fruits, but there are also many others that qualify as plants that can be eaten. Some of these are herbs, seasonings, nuts, and legumes. Nuts are nothing more than dried and hardened fruit seeds. Herbs, whether fresh or dehydrated, are just flavorful plant life. Seasonings are simply different fruits or scraps of bark that have been dehydrated for market. Some beverages, like coffee and teas, are also procured from edible plants.

Plants used for medicine is our second category. This category includes all plants that have medicinal benefits, many of which are cultivated specifically for use in prescription drugs. Medicinal plants only count in this category if they do not need to be modified chemically. Opium is one such plant, and it is used in several pain relief drugs. Codeine and morphine are two good examples. Opiate drugs are manufactured with poppy sap after it has been refined and dehydrated.

Some plants that are medically beneficial do not require any processing whatsoever. For example, witch hazel is a wonderfully effective anti-itching agent when massaged into the skin. It can be a great help for those with chronic dry skin or anyone suffering from insect bites. The yarrow plant will help the body ward off poisoning. Many plants are used as antibiotics, including garlic, which can help cure infections. Peppermint and dandelion are often employed to aid problematic digestion.

Other plants that have medicinal properties are eaten or used raw. Witch hazel can be rubbed on the skin and is helpful with itching that accompanies bug bites and skin dryness. Yarrow is a type of plant eaten to relieve poisoning. Garlic is an antibiotic and can stop infection, while dandelion and peppermint are used to treat digestive problems.

Plants used in industry are very common, as well, and as such are our third category. Some plants produce usable oil, such as the oil palm. Other plants produce fibers that can be used for clothing and other materials, such as hemp and flax.

Our last category is the decorative plant category. If you live in or travel to the suburbs regularly, you will see that it is very fashionable! Many suburban homes will have extravagant, multi-colored gardens displaying many plants from this category, as they have no use besides their aesthetic appeal. Ivies, poinsettias, tulips, a number of trees, and many types of shrubbery all fit into the decorative definition.

Placing plants into usage categories can be a practical manner if defining different kinds of plants. People should always remember how many uses these various plants give us, and how much our lives would be inconvenienced if they didn't exist. This is a prime motivation to defend these plants' natural habitats!

Orchid Types Any Plant Enthusiast Should Know About

There are many orchid types, and because of a huge number of species to choose from, you may get confused on what to choose. But among all the different hybrids, there are only two orchid types, the terrestrial orchids and epiphytes."Epiphyte" was derived from Greek word "epi", meaning "upon" and phyton meaning "a plant". They are plants that derive moisture and nutrients from the air and rain. They usually grow on another plant but are not parasitic on it. This refers to any plant system that has a root system above the ground. An example of this type is the Dendrobium.

Dendrobiums can be found in tropical conditions such as South East Asia, Australia and Polynesis. They are the best known ephiphytes, and are available in reddish tones, including pink and orange. They are perfect for indoor gardens and warm houses. They also require much head and light. They are easy to grow, but do not flower on a regular basis.

Next to the Dendrobium is the Phalaenopsis, which is also another widely known epiphyte. This type does not grow well when it is exposed to direct sunlight. They thrive when there is ample heat and when placed in a location with a diffusion of sunlight and shade.

Phalaenopsis orchids also do not like dry periods. Without enough water, these orchids will die. The roots will begin turning white and this is a sign that your plants need more water. The ideal temperature of a Phalaenopsis orchid is between seventy five to eighty five degrees Fahrenheit. They are best kept indoors as well.

Epiphytic orchids are found naturally in the canopy of trees. These are the main group of tropical orchids. They establish themselves by their fleshy roots on branches or bark of trees. Their roots can sustain the plant through wet and dry periods. The core of the root is surrounded by a spongy covering that can absorb water easily. When it rains, the cover soaks up water, and turns green when saturated.

The Terrestrial orchid is the second orchid type. Terrestrial Orchids as their name would suggest grow and flower on the ground. Although terrestrial orchids have roots that grow beneath the surface of the soil just like most other kinds of plants, some terrestrial orchids are semi-terrestrial. This means that they have both underground and aerial roots.

Among the terrestrial orchids are Spathoglottis, Cymbidiums, the slipper orchids and the Chinese ground orchids. Cymbidium orchids can be found in their natural habitat with extends from Southeast Asia to Japan and they can also be found in Australia.

Cymbidiums bloom and grow well in cool regions, like those in the pacific coast. They are found in brown, pink and yellow colors. There are also green and white hybrids. This type of orchid should be watered more during summer or hotter months, and watering should be reduced once it becomes fall or even winter.

Taking care of orchids is not as complicated as you think, and there is so much to learn aside from finding out different orchid types. Orchids are such fascinating plants to care for and grow, you just need to be knowledgeable and take the right steps to make them thrive and bloom.

Landscape Design and Ideas - What Types Of Plants You Should Use

Creating your perfect landscape design is the first step to landscaping your yard. Two common questions that I always receive are what types of plants should I use in the sun or shade? And, what's it going to cost me? Well, both of these questions are very broad and general. In terms of plants to use, there are so many plants available that it would take a long time to list them all! In terms of budget, some landscape jobs may cost $1,000, and some could cost over $1,000,000. It really depends on what you want, but no matter you want your end result to look like, a common goal is to use plants and shrubs that live long and thrive.

If the location of the area you are landscaping is shady, you may want to veer away from using plants that require a lot of sun. Even though your landscape design may include many beautiful flowers that would just make a specific area perfect, it would be impractical to plant something that is going to wilt or die rather quickly due to a lack of sunlight. I know it may seem that your options are limited if the area you plan to landscape is covered in shade and doesn't get direct sunlight, but there are plenty of options for you that I think you'll like. Some of the better plants to use are ones like ferns, astilbes, day lilies, monarchs, rhododendrons, and hydrangeas. Perhaps my favorite are the hydrangeas, they have beautiful vibrant colors and are a very popular among many landscape designers. One thing to keep in mind, though, is never to start fertilizing your hydrangea at the end of summer. Hydrangeas start to go dormant in the Fall, and the last thing you want to do is stimulate new growth.

If you plan to landscape an area that receives more direct sunlight, you are going to open a whole new world of possibilities! Most plants and flowers require an adequate amount of sunlight, so you'd do well to pursue landscaping one of these areas of your yard. Types of plants that do better in sunlight include the shasta daisy, coreopsis, verbena, aster, lamb's ear, purple coneflower, blanket flower, and Russian sage. While many people will include these in their landscape design, my personal favorite is the baby palm tree. Baby palms are just like palm trees only, you guessed it, baby! Adding a baby palm to your backyard adds a world of excitement. You may even feel like you're on vacation year-round! I don't know about you, but being on vacation year-round sounds like something I want to do.

I hope that you gained some knowledge and will be able to create your own landscape design to implement in your own yard that fits your needs and budget. It's usually not easy, but in the end, it's extremely worth it.

Which Types of Plants Are Easily Grown?

Easy-to-Grow House Plants

A lot of indoor plants are popular for the beautiful foliage and therefore have great decorative value through the different seasons. The plants discussed here are very easy to grow and will do great in your home, office or shop, all you need to do is provide a bit of love and care.

Ficus, philodendron and ivy of any kind are all very attractive and easy to grow options. For wall or pillar covering, plants with a climbing nature and those with skinny, long shoots which need support are quite suitable for adorning your home. Some plants are grown for the foliage alone and others for the beauty of the leaves.

The plants listed on the following list have become common and popular because they can withstand dry conditions and can withstand any environment quite well.

Asparagus plumosus

The plant above, has dark green, fern-line "foliage" on very delicate, wiry stems that vine with support and grows several feet long. It should not be confused with the Asparagus plumosus nanus, which is smaller and more compact and not a climber.

Cissus

This plant is great or trellis or any support structure to which you must tie the stems securely.

Euphorbia

Owing to its semi-succulent nature, this beautiful flowering plant is ideal for growing in a sunny window. Because of its succulent nature, this flowering beauty is great for growing on a sunny window ledge.

Hedera (Ivy)

This plant has many different varieties, some have green while others have variegated coloring. These plants are among the heartiest of house plants.

Hoya carnosa

These plants are more commonly known as waxflower, they have a slim, corded stem which can be easily trained to grow in any position. The flowers bloom on the older flower spurs in bunches that must not be cut.

Monstera deliciosa

As a potted plant, this one has become widely popular in recent years. It is easy to recognize because its leaves are large and irregularly shaped holes. Younger plants are small and bushy, but the plants will eventually get long stems which need to be supported.

Passiflora

This plant is a true climber with spiral springy tendrils which will easily adherer to anything available for support. It will also get shoots that can be up to several feet long.

Philodendron

This plant is a great plant to train to climb to a frame. It will covers its support surfaces with a large mass of shiny green foliage. Some species have aerial roots and this will fix to support posts if they are covered with a thick layer of moss of some kind.

Window Sill Gardens

Growing flowers or foliage plants on a window sill is a form of gardening, most people can easily do this. For those who live in flats, and other people who do not have a garden, especially shut-ins who are confined to their home, this option provide them with countless pleasures with this type of gardening.

Window sill plants could be more popular if it were not for the fact, it takes a great amount of time to fill and empty the pots. Additionally, there are also watering problems, draining water drips on the heads of people in the street and this can be very annoying.

However, by taking some easy precautions during construction of the containers and setting the up in position, problems like this can be avoided. These kinds of problems will be addressed at the end of the chapter.

There is a wide array of outdoor and indoor plants [http://www.plant-care.com/blog/90/apartment-plants-5-easy-care-houseplants-for-a-touch-of-nature] which you have to choose from and there are many ways a beautiful way displays can be gotten.

A popular method involves planting during the spring and summer seasons to show of the beautiful blooms. The can be achieved by adopting the same planting method that is used to display plants in a flower bed, in an open garden.

For people who are not familiar with types of plants used for this reason, a visit to the public parks should assist in understanding. This means speaking with gardeners and other people knowledgeable about how the best bedding plants can be found. Many plants chosen for bedding are also just fine for window boxes, but only dwarfs are better used for this purpose.

DNA Barcoding in Plants & Its Potential Applications

Today, barcodes conceived by Bernard Silver, a graduate student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia, PA, and his friends Norman Woodland and Jordin Johanson in 1948 are used universally. They play a critical role for identification purposes, relational information, and tracking. They are especially useful because scanners are relatively inexpensive, extremely accurate and highly efficient at obtaining and transmitting information from barcodes and their databases.

Natural barcodes (a short strand of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (the genetic code unique to each living organism and some viruses) that consists of between 300-800 base pairs (bps) - Adenine (A)-Thymidine (T), and Cytosine (C)-Guanine (G)) that can be represented by different colors) also exist and are well established in the animal kingdom. Through sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) gene (inspired by biologist Paul Hebert's futile efforts dating back to the 1970s to identify 2000 species of moth in Papua New Guinea (because of their taxonomic and morphological similarities), his "retreat to water fleas" (of which there are only 200 species) and subsequent 2003 paper in which he described "the diversity of life as a 'harsh burden' to biologists" and suggested, "every species on Earth... be assigned a simple DNA bar code so it would be easy to tell them apart" as written in Scanning Life (National Geographic, May 2010)), which is present in the mitochondrial DNA of every multi-cellular organism, scientists are able to readily determine phylogeny (identification) on a molecular level and store it in databases for easy retrieval. Per P.M. Hollingsworth, DNA bar-coding plants in biodiversity hot spots: Progress and outstanding questions (Heredity, 9 April 2008) "DNA bar-coding is now routinely used for organismal identification" in animals and "has contributed to the discovery of new species."

However, per Mark W. Chase, Nicolas Salamin, Mike Wilkinson, James M. Dunwell, Rao Prasad Kesanakurthi, Nadia Haidar, and Vincent Savolainen, Land plants and DNA barcodes: short-term and long-term goals (Philosophical Transactions Of The Royal Society, 2005) this has not been the case with plants until recently since their CO1 gene does not have the ability to serve as a barcode gene and because they "have had the reputation of being problematic for DNA bar-coding" due to "low levels of variability" and lack of variation in "plastid phylogenetic markers." This view prevailed until 2008 when a team led by Dr. Vincent Savolainen of Imperial College London's Department of Life Sciences and The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, studied the functionality of the megakaryocyte-associated tyrosine-protein kinase (matK) gene located in the intron of trnK chloroplast genes found in plant leaves. Their research found that the matK gene (which "contained significant species-level genetic variability and divergence, conserved flanking sites for developing PCR (polymerase chain reaction, a process that enables scientists to produce millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence in about two hours while bypassing the need to use bacteria to amplify DNA) primers for wide taxonomic application, [and] a short sequence length... to facilitate... DNA extraction and amplification") as reported by W. John Kress and David L. Erickson, DNA barcodes: Genes, genomics, and bioinformatics (PNAS. Vol. 105, No. 8. 26 February 2008) and in Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Gene Almanac. Dolan DNA Learning Center and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Inc. 2009) could be used to differentiate between at least 90% of all plants, including those that appeared identical to the human eye, known as cryptic species because of their identical appearance and genetic differences.

The matK gene, though, was found ineffective in distinguishing between up to 10% of plant species because of two major factors:

1. When variation resulting from "rapid bursts of speciation" was small, and

2. Based on Anna-Marie Lever's article, DNA 'barcode' revealed in plants (BBC News, 6 February 2008), when plants were hybrids whose genome was rearranged through natural and artificial cross-breeding, which "confuse[d] matK gene information"

When discovery that the matK gene could serve as a natural barcode in plants was made, its location was consistent with that in animals - the barcode genes in both are located in cellular energy centers outside the nucleus (mitochondria serve as "tiny powerhouses" in animal cells while chloroplasts are involved in plant photosynthesis) since per Anna-Marie Lever, DNA 'barcode' revealed in plants, "nuclear genes usually evolve too rapidly to distinguish between [organisms] of the same species." However, consistent with mitochronidrial genes in animals, "chloroplast genes [in plants] evolve at a slower rate, allowing for [distinguishment between the same species, and] fast enough for differences to occur in the DNA code between species."

The only exception between plants and animals is the range of effectiveness for their respective barcode genes. The CO1 gene can be effectively used to determine and record phylogeny in nearly 100% of animal species while the matK gene is ineffective in about 10% of plant species. The key reason for the 90% effective range with regard to the matK gene can be attributed to natural crossbreeding, which is significantly more common to plants than animals. Because of this, matK gene information needs to be supplemented by data from another gene. Although studies utilizing trnH-psbA genes that share similar characteristics to matK showed promise (when sequencing of matK and trnH-psbA was utilized involving plants of the nutmeg family (Myristicaceae) the effective range for correct identification rose to approximately 95%), a panel of 52 leading barcoding scientists opted on using the ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase (rbcL) gene (also located in plant chloroplasts) outlined in a 2009 paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences as reported by Daniel Cressey, DNA barcodes for plants a step closer (Nature, 27 July 2009), to effectively complete the barcode for the 10% group.

While discovery of the phylogenetic usefulness of the matK gene is relatively novel, studies indicating the phylogenetic usefulness of the rbcL gene date back as far as 1986 when Jane Aldrich, Barry Cherney, Ellis Merlin and Jeff Palmer reported in Nucleic Acids Research that sequencing of rbcL genes showed petunia and tobacco and alfalfa and peas are 97.3% and 94.1% genetically identical when comparing their bps.

Additional studies, to name two, added further evidence of the phylogenetic usefulness of the rbcL gene. One, reported by Mitsuyasu Hasebe, Tomokyuki Omori, Miyuki Nakazawa, Toshio Sano, Masahiro Kato, and Kunio Iwatsuki in rbcL Gene sequences provide evidence for the evolutionary lineages of leptosporangiate ferns (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, June 1994) utilized PCR-amplified rbcL fragments in 58 species of leptosporangiate ferns, which belong to the pteridophyte class (vascular plants that produce spores to reproduce in lieu of flowers and seeds) which has the longest evolutionary history of any vascular land plant (consequently enduring the greatest loss of plylogentically useful data) to capture their evolutionary links. The other, reported by Hiroaki Setoguchi, Takeshi Asakawa Osawa, Jean-Christophe Pintaud, Tanguy Jaffré, and Jean-Marie Veillon in Phylogenetic relationships within Araucariaceae based on rbcL gene sequences (American Journal of Botany, 1998) utilized rbcL gene sequencing to successfully determine the pylogenetic relationship between 29 species of Araucariaceae (a sample representing nearly every existing species of the ancient family of conifers that achieved maximum diversification during the Jurassic (c. 199.6± 0.6 to 145.5± 4 million years ago (Ma) and Cretaceous periods (c. 145.5 ± 4 to 65.5 ± 0.3 Ma)).

During the study that led to the discovery that a plant's matK gene could serve as a primary barcode gene, Dr. Savolainen's team compared eight potential candidate genes and analyzed more than 1600 plant DNA samples obtained from the tropical forests of Costa Rica and the temperate region of Kruger National Park, South Africa, two of the world's leading biodiversity hotspots.

Through sequencing of the matK gene (which has a slightly different code for plants of different species and a near identical code for plants of the same species), they were able to distinguish between a thousand orchid species - plants known for their difficulty to differentiate because of their near identical appearance, especially when sterile. Consequently, per Plant DNA 'Barcode' identified (Medical News Today, 6 February 2008), "...what was previously assumed to be one species of orchid was [found to be] two distinct species that live on different slopes of the mountains [with] differently shaped flowers adapted for different pollinating insects."

Scientific analysis, in which the matK gene was divided into five sectors has determined that the sector 3 (known as 3') region is the most effective area in providing useful phylogenetic information. When broken down further, 140 out of the 306 bps of the 3' region were phylogenetically informative.

Establishment of the matK gene's barcode function supplemented by use of the rbcL gene, represents a major breakthrough in plant science since it offers a diverse range of potential applications that can be used by scientists and plant taxonomists/systematists as well as an opportunity to close the large gap that presently exists between plant and animal barcoding.

Such potential applications include but are not limited to:

1. Accurate identification of plant species, especially those of cryptic species that are difficult to differentiate that could potentially lead to discovery of new species. Presently as stated by Anna-Marie Lever, DNA 'barcode' revealed in plants only a "few experts [can] accurately identify the plant composition of biodiverse hotspots."

2. Accurate identification of botanic components in foods and medicines.

3. Detection of undesirable plant material in processed foods by health inspectors.

4. Tracking of plant species (e.g. migration).

5. Locating of endangered species for habitat preservation.

6. Detection of illegal transport/trade of endangered species to protect them from potential harm.

7. Confirmation or identification of plant-insect associations.

8. Expansion and facilitation of botanical medical research.

However, before this can be achieved, the following steps must be taken:

1. Establishment of a genetic database that can be uploaded into a portable scanner so that data can be readily available based on the analysis of a mere leaf/tissue sample. To enhance identification of known species and speed up discovery of new species, such a database must be massive and available online.

2. Establishment of a search method or algorithm to search and access DNA barcode information from an online database.

3. Establishment of a set of reference standards (which includes barcoding based solely on bp extractions from matK and rbcL genes) utilizing existing plant DNA specimens held at botanical gardens, herbariums, museums and other DNA repositories. For example, the Consortium for the Barcode of Life based at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. has identified over two million of the estimated ten million species of plants, animals, and fungi (many still unnamed) while the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew currently holds 23,000+ plant DNA samples. This is especially important since fresh collection efforts aimed at obtaining the DNA of every plant species, are impractical since they would require significant effort and time.

4. Collection efforts conducted in accordance with international laws (e.g. Convention of Biological Diversity) to protect habitats and ensure specimen integrity. Per W. John Kress and David L. Erickson, DNA barcodes: Genes, genomics, and bioinformatics, such collection efforts are necessary since existing specimens are limited in quantity and may consist of degraded DNA. Currently collection efforts are being made in temperate (Plummers Island, MD and New York City, among others) and tropical (Forest Dynamics Plot, Panama, among others) regions.

With a stamp of approval from the United Nations that declared 2010 "the International Year of Biodiversity," vigorous global efforts aimed at barcoding 500,000 out of the 1.7 million named species of plants, animals, and fungi by 2015, are being pursued by international teams of scientists as well as by groups/projects such as the Consortium for the Barcode of Life and soon, the International Barcode of Life (iBol) project, which is slated to launch in July 2010. Furthermore, Paul Hebert, the biologist who inspired the barcode movement and a major participant in the iBol project, per Scanning Life (National Geographic, May 2010) declared, "the approach is scalable to the planet [so that by 2025 every] species humans encounter frequently will [have been] barcoded."

With regard to plants, as technology is enhanced to exploit the genetic code of matK and rbcL genes through the establishment of a uniform database, production of inexpensive portable scanners capable of analyzing leaf/tissue samples and matching the DNA barcode with database information, the field of botanical phylogenetics and research will benefit greatly especially since plant identification and classification will be available to more than a few experts. In addition, such identification and classification will be more accurate than that provided by sole reliance on visual examination and physical morphology (especially with regard to cryptic species) while endangered species will be able to be easily tracked and better protected, and people will have greater assurance pertaining to the food, drinks, and/or medicine they consume.

The Cape Floral Kingdom and Flower Conservancy

South Africa has many beautiful hotspots within its borders; however one particular site is a world famous treasure: The Cape Floral Kingdom. The area is a belt of famous shrubbery, bright flowers and an incredible variety of plant families and species. Due to the floral diversity and large number of differing species in such a relatively small space, the area is one of six noted floral kingdoms in the world.

Most of these floral kingdoms span extremely vast distances, sometimes entire continents made up of "floral provinces", yet the Cape Floral Kingdom is unique as the area is small, comprising just single province. The Cape Floral Kingdom is located in the Western Cape and contains eight protected areas situated from the Cape Peninsula to the Eastern Cape. The regions within the Floral Kingdom that contain fynbos have been designated as priority eco-regions for conservations. The area has also been declared a biodiversity hotspot.

The Cape Floral Kingdom has also been named a World Heritage Site due to the many ecological and biological aspects associated with the vegetation, some of which are unique to this kingdom, and fynbos plant family.

The concentration and diversity of the flora in the area is one of the highest in the world. The scientific value of the area is also a natural wonder as plants have adapted to fire, have unique reproductive processes, disperse seeds by insects in specific patterns and contain adaptive radiation: a rapid evolution of change.

The Luscious Green Belt

The Cape Floral Kingdom is situated in the Western Cape in South Africa as the area enjoys a Mediterranean climate with mild, wet winters and warm dry summers. This Floral Kingdom area spans from the Western Cape in the South West to the borders of the Eastern Cape Province; the area where the climate begins to change to a tropical climate and summer rainfall is experienced.

The majority of the flora in the Cape Floral Kingdom consists of various species of fynbos, meaning "fine bush" in Afrikaans. This is a reference to the needle shaped leaves of many fynbos species, a large number of which have hard leaves.

Fynbos

Fynbos is a very diverse plant species that includes the protea, heath and reed families which prefer acidic sands and nutrient poor soils, making the plant an excellent helper in conservation efforts. As they like poor soil, the fynbos plant assists in binding soil and preventing too much surface run off which chokes rivers and generally wreaks havoc with the water cycle. In fact, many conservation efforts, such as sustainable development projects, help in this regard by providing work for locals planting fynbos to grow the population of the plant, bind soil to prevent run off into rivers and streams and also to educate locals on the importance and unique make up of the plant.

Proteas

The various types of proteas are also an attraction of the Cape Floral Kingdom. These large flowers are easily visible on the landscape and provide a stark contrast to the other fynbos flowers which are generally small and delicate. The protea is only found in the southern hemisphere and more than 1,400 species of protea occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom fynbos.

The other plants and vegetation which grow in the Cape Floral Kingdom are scrubs in the Strandveld, daisies on the Renosterveld and graminoids and geophytes in the coastal regions.

The Cape Floral Kingdom is truly a natural wonder of the world. With differing parts flowering in different seasons, blooms are always visible and beautiful to behold. However, this was almost lost due to ignorance of fynbos' rarity and uniqueness. Fortunately today they are protected and helped in their growth and survival through various conservation projects, protected areas and community projects.

Author Bio:

Grootbos Private Game Reserve is located in Gansbaai in the Western Cape and provides luxury eco tourism holidays which educate tourists and visitors to the reserve and lodges about the importance of nature. Grootbos practises flora and fauna conservation in the reserve which is situated in the Cape Floral Kingdom.

Omega 3 Sources: How To Get Omega 3 From Plant Foods

We all know that a lot of our forefathers lived healthy, long lives as mainly vegetarians, and that many of the foods that come from the plants kingdom are well known as rich and hearty in fatty type acids. So then naturally if you are a vegetarian, maybe perhaps a vegan, then you might assume that you can get all of the needed fatty acids you will need from simple plant sources instead of from eggs or fish products.

A single concept that we like to highlight is that it is not simply a quandary of obtaining the right quantity of the omega-3 acids, but providing as well your system with the perfect ratio, or balance, of omega-sixes to three's. And for us vegetarians, research suggests an adequate and safe balance of those omega's that lie somewhere between two:one and four:one. A lot of the hardship for the present day's omnivores and vegetarians alike starts with the truth that omega-6 acids are a lot more easily obtained within foods than omega-3's. People that are vegetarians especially are vulnerable to an amount more that needed of omega-sixes in relation to omega-three's.

Another big consideration really is how good our bodies change over the plant sources of omega-three's. People can take in omega-3's simply by eating hempseed, flaxseed, walnuts and canola oil. It's noteworthy to add though that these foods have the parent omega-three particle, ALA. For a variety of reasons, the human body is not really that efficient in changing over ALA to its much more productive derivatives, EPA, and DHA. While ALA does have decent anti-inflammatory end results, it isn't nearly as instrumental or protective of our health like EPA or DHA.

Giving yourself as straight a source that is possible of both EPA as well as DHA would be number-one recommend way to go, regardless of whether you are vegetarian or not. Ingesting both DHA as well as EPA straight away is especially beneficial for those of us that have greater needs, for instance pregnant or breastfeeding women, than those who have diabetes or any other persistent inflammatory processes, as well as those who have neurological disorders, the elderly, premature babies,and then vegetarians, those whose diets are naturally lower in DHA, especially lower in EPA.

The good news is that it's possible to upgrade your natural capacity for converting parent omega-three's into EPA as well as DHA. Partly because your of body's efficiency for running these changes depends upon a few factors that we have absolutely no control over, which are genetics and age. Conversely, there are some factors you are able to control that greatly impact this conversion of our EFA's. A good example would be that consuming protein, copper, pyroxidine, calcium, biotin, zinc and magnesium have been proven to improve the conversion activity. The best source for these certain nutrients has always been wholesome fresh foods.

New Uses For Old Plants

Plants continue to play and important role in our lives. Modern science is finding new solutions to problems by closely examining the plant kingdom. These new discoveries make us realize how much we depend on nature, despite all of our technological advances. Below are three examples of new discoveries found in age-old plants.

The AUSTRALIAN CHESTNUT THREE (Castanospermum australe) may be the source of an anti - AIDS drug. The National Cancer Institution is investigating an extract from the tree's seed. Laboratory tests show that the chemical, castanospermine, prevents AIDS virus from killing healthy cells. Tests have also proven this tree to be and attractive, low maintenance houseplant. So this exotic tree may one day be a well - recognized plant.

Experiments being done by the USDA on the desert plant, LESQUERELLA, are gaining attention. Seed oil extract can be made into a new type of plastic, which is tougher than most on the market today.

Development of lesquerella could bring desert regions of the country to new agricultural importance.

The seed of the NEEM TREE (Azadirachta inica) produces an extract which is deadly to over sixty insects that attack crops. Tests have shown this extract to be so powerful as to repel feeding locust. Identifying useful, sage and effective ways of keeping pests in check is an important challenge for modern agriculture. A Wisconsin company has patented a neem - based pesticide and will begin selling it in the near future.

Scientists have studied only a tiny fraction of the plants on this earth. With new discoveries occurring so frequently, we may see science lead us into a second Green Revolution even greater than the one seen by the last generation.

In 1985, Briscoe White opened The Growers Exchange in an abandoned Texaco station on a busy urban street corner in Richmond, Virginia. The facility has grown over the years, and is now 5 distinct growing environments with 5 acres under cover.

 

Tips For Orchid Flowering

What makes a flowering orchid so special? A flowering orchid is a spectacle that provides the grower with a sense of fulfillment and helps to make the plant beautiful. This article will provide you some information about the flowering orchid with the Cymbidium as an example.

Is your Cymbidium orchid flowers with yellow spikes that are starting to wither? Are you unsure as to whether you should cut the spike or simply let it wither away? This article will help solve this problem, but first you need to consider some basic facts about this type of flowering orchid.

When it comes to orchids, the Cymbidiums are the most popular of al water and spring blooming orchids that have their own unique flowering features. The Cymbidium has a thick and waxy flower with five pointed petals on each bloom. This specific orchid has a genus of about 44 species that are all native to the Asian continent.

The Cymbidium has three types of bulbs: The Old Back Bulbs with no leaves, which can save their food for emergency times; the Old Bulbs with leaves that can support growth and produce flowers and lastly the New Bulbs or Leads, which have sites where flowers can grow.

The Cymbidium flowering orchid is very beautiful. These orchids come in a wide range of beautiful colors, which make them perfect for decorating any room in your house. While this orchid is flowering, the bud will open and the spikes will bloom for two to three months.

The plant should be taken inside whenever the atmosphere becomes hot and dry because of artificial heating. The warm dry atmosphere causes the plant to drops its leaves. The flower spikes don't have to stay on the plant until the flowers die. This can cause the plant to become non-flowering in the next seasons.

After about four weeks, the flower will become fully open and at this time, you should cut off the spikes so there is no interference with the next growing cycle. If the plant doesn't flower then you need to force the plant to flower by placing it in a sunnier condition.

During the growing season, you should always water the orchid and pour off any water that isn't absorbed. In the summer months, you should feed the orchid with fertilizer at least once a month.

Every two to four years you should repot your orchid and is best done when the plant bulbs fill the pot. A healthy orchid needs to have a minimum of one to two new bulbs each year from the previous year's bulb. Once you repot the orchid make sure you tease the roots apart so you can get rid of the old potting mix and trim dead roots as well.

If it is needed, you make have to divide the orchid into two or more plants. If you have to do this, you should twist and tear the bulbs apart. If you want to have a beautiful flowering orchid then your Cymbidium should be as large as possible. For about two years, you can expect the orchid flowering to be retarded.

Now it is time to consider the answer to the question raised in the first paragraph. You should trip the spike at the point that it emerges from the flower. As explained earlier in the article, the Cymbidium requires light and can grow outside.

You should start by growing the plant in a semi-shade location and then move it into full sunshine. Every other week you can feed the orchid one teaspoon per gallon of plant food.

During the fall, the plant takes up to forty degrees and needs cooler temperature in order to produce new buds for the following flowering season. Often orchid flowering occurs once a year so you don't have to worry.

The Fungi Kingdom As It Pertains To Black Mold

Knowing Fungi Kingdom

Fungi Kingdom consists of about one million species that includes a variety of molds, mushrooms, yeasts and singular fungi. The black mold and fungi live on the organic substances available, by decaying and obtaining nutritious values from them.

Organic matter such as litter, plant soil, animal dung, fungal remains and living plants are more immune to such hosts. However, this act of black mold and the rest of the fungi kingdom is much important because they breakdown the organic substances that fertilize the soil. This keeps the life cycle going on. Without decomposers such as this, the fertilized soil would have ran out thousands of years ago and no acts of farming could have taken place.

Black Mold

They are more commonly known as mildew. Molds or black mold are both the same things. They have the ability of producing a toxin that can be very harmful to living species. They are a colony of fungi that usually grows on carpets, cloths, wooden furniture, insulation materials or leather products. However, the growth of black mold is only possible when the percentage of water content in the surrounding atmosphere is relatively higher than average.

They are present in large numbers on the face of the earth. This type of fungus can grow in large colonies even in households if the conditions it demands are provided. The factors that are needed to promote black mold growth are moisture, nutrients, low temperature and light.

Whether you talk about indoors or outdoors, it is a fact that carbon plays its extensive role in our life. Thus, presence of organic materials is very likely. The factor that mostly accounts for the encouraged growth is the amount of moisture. It is impossible to eliminate carbon from our daily life, but if the atmospheric humidity is kept in control, the growth can be hindered. As far as temperature and light are concerned, they do play roles in the promotion of growth but not for all the kinds of black mold, because lots of it can grow even in complete absence of light.

Reproduction of a Black Mold

The production of mold includes four steps majorly, after the right conditions are available. Hyphae are the cells responsible for the degradation of matter as they release enzymes to extract nutrients from the environment. After they have their nutrition, the formation of spores begins in the hyphae. The formation of spores depends on the availability of the growth factors.

Once the spores have matured and are ready for promoting further growth, they are released in the air. That is why there are spores everywhere in the surrounding. They are genetically much resistant and long lasting. They only settle if they find the right aura. Otherwise, they can go on for years in inappropriate environments. When the spores find the right place for nutrients, they begin to germinate. This signifies the beginning of a new colony.

Learn the Varieties of Flowering Plants

Flowering plants have grown on every continent on earth. These plants make up nearly ninety percent of the plant kingdom. The total number of unique species is over 230,000, and many species in the tropics have not even been named yet. Over the past one hundred and thirty million years, flowering plants have grown in nearly every habitat to be found on earth, from mountain meadows to dense forests, from freshwater marshes to fertile grasslands, and from alpine summits to sun-baked deserts. Some of these plants even live underwater, and have adapted to salt water.

Seagrasses are the hardy plants that can live at the edge of the sea and even underwater. They include nearly fifty species. Almost all flowering plants produce a flower or bud of some type, even though in some families, the flowers cannot be seen by the naked eye. Some cultivars and grasses don't appear to produce flowers even though they have vestigial flowers.

The three most populous families of flowering plants contain the highest number of species. The legume family, the orchid family and the sunflower family are the three with the most species within them. Heads of flowers within the sunflower family come in sizes that extend from very small to very large. And orchids come in many different colors, sizes and shapes.

Some of the largest categories of the nonwoody flowering plants include asters, geraniums and orchids. On the other end of the species, the members of the largest woody plant groups include acacia, passion fruit and figs. All of these have members of their families that number in the hundreds or thousands.

All of the many thousands of flowering plant types were given scientific names by the botanists who discovered them. Scientific names are often brought down from Latin or Greek languages, and they are spelled with the letters of the Roman alphabet, regardless of where they are found. Plants of the flowering variety also have common names, as well, usually describing an aspect of their shape, or a person who helped discover them, or words that describe where they are grown. But sometimes the common names seem to have no meaning at all.

Some flowering plants don't have green leaves, and they live as parasites on the roots and stems of other plants. They take amino acids and sugars from the host plant, in order to grow. Some of these combinations make up the most bizarre-looking plants ever.

There are different types of flowering plant species all over the earth, from snowy mountains to barren deserts to underwater meadows. These plants all share one thing in common, and that is the ability to flower under whatever circumstances they find themselves in.

Plant Spirit Shamanism- The Way of The Lover - Sufi Healing

According to Sufi legend, the Prophet Sulaymãn was the first to learn the healing properties of flowers and herbs while he was at prayer one day, and a flower sprang up and greeted him. Sulaymãn returned the greeting and asked the flower what it wanted. It replied that it was a healer.

Sulaymãn noted this and, seeing his interest, other flowers grew around him and told him their healing secrets too, until he knew the cure for all diseases.

Flowers heal, it is said, because they possess dhat. This is the spirit of God and the essence of every flower that ever was, is, or can be. Shamans say the same: that every plant is all plants, so that lavender is not just a lavender, but all lavenders; and since all lavenders are not just a member of their species, but part of the entire plant kingdom, they are not just one flower either, but carry the potency and spirit of all plants.

This shamanic concept also illustrates the magical "Law of Similarity" referred to by Sir James Frazer in his book The Golden Bough, which states that "like attracts like." Thus, the effect of a plant is not just limited to its species; if it looks like another plant of a different species, it will act in a similar way, and if it looks like a human body part or organ, that is what it will heal.

Other shamanic concepts in the story of Sulaymãn are that plants which grow locally will cure local diseases, and they will tell you what ailments they are used for if you ask them directly. The shamanic practice for doing so is called journeying. It is a form of active meditation, where you take your attention into your body and allow it to reveal itself as a form of conscious energy or spirit. You can then ask which herbs or plants it most needs in order to heal itself, and how these should be used--as a tea, the ingredient for an herbal bath, or an aromatherapy oil to be used in a burner, for example.

Having identified the herb, you can then look for it in nature or find it at a herbalist's shop and gather a quantity for yourself.

Spend a little time with it when you do, imagining it to be a real spiritual being and entering into dialog with it so you can explore its medicinal qualities. You might then wish to look up this plant in an herbal encyclopaedia to cross-check the information you have received with the guidance provided by others who also know this plant. You may be surprised at how accurate you are. But, then again, why should this be so surprising? At some time in the distant past, before there were "scientists" and "medical procedures," the spirit of the plant must have communicated its purpose to someone in order to be included in an encyclopaedia at all.

Two very good plants to begin with, if you wish to restore your body and build your strength, are echinacea and uña de gato (cat's claw), both of which are powerful immune system healers. The immune system is what gives the body energy and helps it fight off and prevent disease. These plants should therefore be considered in any regime to empower the body.

In aromatherapy, oil of amber, extracted from the resin of the pine tree Picea succinfera, is also recommended as a balancer of the body's energies, and for this reason it is known to Sufis as the King of Scents. A drop of amber applied to the third eye will be absorbed by the body and stimulate the pineal gland, which activates and harmonizes many of the body's functions and leads to increased well-being.

Harmonizing the Emotional Self

The heart sees the Giver of the secret - Rumi

Balanced emotions allow our souls to flower. When we are calm and tranquil, we can moderate the "heat" of our passions to achieve emotional equilibrium. We are then able to avoid the sudden traumas that cause us pain and distract us from the path, so that life's ups and downs have less impact on us.

There are particular herbs that help with this. The shamans of the Amazon use a plant called chiric sanango, for example. As well as its physical effects of warming up the body and bringing comfort from the cold, it offers more psychological and emotional healing, also to do with hot and cold, in that it "warms up" a cold heart and "cools" a heart that is inflamed with jealousy or rage. In other words, it helps people open their hearts to love so they discover a more sensitive and compassionate part of themselves.

Chiric sanango can sometimes be found in specialist herbal shops or on the Internet, but failing that, mint can be used instead, as it is also a balancer of the body's physical and emotional heat and promotes the flow of love. For these reasons it is associated with the planet Venus, which was named after the Roman goddess of love.

A good plant to combine with mint is lemon balm, which is famous in Arabian herbal magic for creating feelings of love and wholeness. The chronicler Pliny remarked that its powers of healing were so great that, rubbed on a sword that had inflicted a wound, it would staunch the flow of blood in an injured person without even the need for physical contact. Recent research at Northumbria University in the UK has also proven its beneficial effects in increasing feelings of calm and well-being. It is a great relaxant and a perfect aid to exercises in meditation and forgiveness.

To make a tea of these herbs, simply boil the fresh ingredients (the amounts you use can be much to your own taste, but three heaped teaspoons is about right) in a pint or so of water for a few minutes and then simmer for a further twenty, allowing the water to reduce. Add honey if you wish, then strain and drink when cool.

For a mixture that will last a little longer, add the fresh ingredients to alcohol (rum or vodka is recommended), with honey if you wish, and drink three to five teaspoonfuls a day, morning, noon, and night. These methods of preparation can also be used for the other plants in this section.

Frankincense aromatherapy oil can also be used as an aid to relaxation and for settling the emotions. It is a powerful cleanser of the energies and enhances intuition, awareness, empathy, and compassion. It was, of course, one of the gifts brought by the wise men to the infant Jesus, and it is still used today in religious ceremonies to create feelings of love and harmony among congregation members.

Another means of harmonizing the emotions is the Sufi practice of toning. The long vowel sound a, as in the word father, will travel from the throat to the heart, where its vibrations can be felt opening our loving consciousness and stimulating our powers of compassion. An alternative, better known today, is the use of the sacred sound om, for the same purpose: to bring calm and connection to others and to the divine within and without ourselves.

Harmonizing the Mental Self

Intellect deliberates, Intellect reflects

And meanwhile Love evaporates into the stratosphere - Rumi

Plants that work on the mind to enhance our powers of skilful thought are more concerned with the development of nonrational and intuitive information than in the improvement of intellectual reasoning, since our rational and analytic faculties are often what hold us back in our spiritual development. As Rumi tells us, "nothing happens until you quit contriving with your mind."

Intellectual prowess is symptomatic of the "trained" or conditioned mind, which has been taught to behave itself and act in a certain unthinking way. As the word "prowess" implies, there is often also a sense of unwholesome pride or arrogance associated with it, which is a game in itself. To access the greater domains of real genius within us, meanwhile, new ways of thought are necessary, unimpaired by expectations or our desire to be an intellectual, to prove ourselves, or to achieve. In fact, we don't need to prove anything, and there is nothing we must achieve.

Plants that can free us from the shackles of intellectual thought and help develop our powers of insight, clarity, and truth include bracken, jasmine, marigold, mugwort, and poplar. These plants bring the gift of lucid dreaming, a special state of consciousness where we become aware of our dreaming selves and can direct our dreams, which may also be prophetic in nature. The boundary between sleeping and wakefulness becomes fluid, and our dreams are more colourful, richer, and potent than before.

Poplar leaves and buds were a key ingredient in the "flying ointments" of European witches, who used it for astral projection. It (or a combination of poplar and the other plants above) can also be used to make a "dreaming pillow," which will help you to explore new levels of consciousness.

To make one of these, take small handfuls of mugwort and poplar, or some of the other herbs mentioned above, and blend them together. Sprinkle the mix with neroli, orange, or patchouli oils, and bind it together. Then place it in a cloth pouch and put it beneath your pillow. It is said that an intention for dreams based on love is best made on a waxing moon, and dreams about health and well-being are best on a waning moon. Keep a dream journal next to your bed, and as soon as you wake up, note down your dreams and reflections so these messages of your soul are not lost.

Another means of developing powers of skilful thought is to work with plants like valerian and vervain that have psycho-spiritual properties for acuity of mind and that help us to overcome negativity and inertia.

Valerian has been recorded from the sixteenth century as an aid to a restful mind and, in the two world wars, was used to combat anxiety and depression. It is still used for these purposes. It also brings relief from panic attacks and tension headaches, which often arise from an unresolved issue or stress of some kind, sometimes to do with love or the lack of it that we perceive in our lives. By relaxing the mind, the psyche is able to work on the real problem, aided by the plant itself.

One way of taking valerian (which will also aid deep and restful sleep) is by adding equal parts to passionflower leaves and hop flowers and covering them with vodka and honey for a few weeks, after which a few teaspoons of the liqueur are taken at bedtime.

Vervain, meanwhile, was well known to the Druids, who used it to protect against "evil spirits" (nowadays, we might say "inner issues" or "worries"). It will help with anxiety, paranoia, insomnia, and depression. Once again, by relaxing the conscious mind, the unconscious is allowed to work on, and release, our more deep-rooted problems and concerns.

Another plant that protects and eases the mind is garlic. Nicholas Culpepper noted these qualities and wrote of it as a "cure-all." It has long been associated with magical uses, protection from witches, vampires, and evil spells, and Roman soldiers ate it to give themselves courage and overcome their fears before battle. There is also a tradition of placing garlic beneath the pillows of children to protect them while they sleep and defend them from nightmares.

One way to use this plant is to make garlic honey by adding two cloves of peeled garlic to a little honey and crushing them in a mortar, then adding another tablespoon of honey to the mix. This can be drunk in hot water or simply eaten, two teaspoons at a time, morning, noon, and night.

An aromatherapy oil that is good for peace of mind and the expansion of spiritual consciousness is sandalwood, which is especially recommended by Sufis "whenever serious meditation and spiritual practices are being undertaken, because it is quieting to all of the egotisms of the body, especially those relating to sexual energies,"11 which can often play on the mind.

Finally, there is a toning practice, too, which helps to develop our intuitive mental capacities. This is the use of the vowel sound i (as in regime), which causes healing vibrations at the third eye, stimulating the pineal gland, strengthening the powers of insight, and relaxing the hold of the conditioned mind.

Harmonizing the Spiritual Self

In the body of the world, they say there is a soul

And you are that - Rumi

Perhaps the greatest plant allies we have for soothing the soul and bringing good fortune and harmony are marigold flowers. Aemilius Macer, as long ago as the thirteenth century, wrote that merely gazing at marigolds will draw "wicked humours out of the head," "comfort the heart," and make "the sight bright and clean."

Shamans grow marigolds near the front door of their houses to absorb negativity from people who pass by. They say that the flowers turn black when this happens, but go back to their normal bright colour when this negative energy is dispersed through their roots to the earth. Marigold petals are also scattered beneath the bed, where they will ensure restful sleep and enrich the soul, aiding astral travel, during which we may commune with the infinite and learn its loving and healing secrets. They can also be added to bath water to bring calm to body and soul.

Another practice you might try is to take a bucket of water containing crushed marigold flowers and
thoroughly wash the floors of your meditation room, to create a peaceful sanctuary for your soul. You can also drink marigold tea, or eat the petals fresh in salads, to enhance your spiritual powers.

Myrrh is perhaps the most potent aromatic oil to help with spiritual expansion. It is mentioned in the Qur'an for its healing properties and was one of the oils commended by God to Moses. According to Shaykh Hakim, "in ancient times it was used to convey to people a certain internal esoteric teaching, to purify their spiritual environment so that the teachings would have a proper soil in which to be planted," and it is still used today as one of the most sacred anointing oils.

All aromatherapy oils are simple to use, and myrrh is no different. It can be massaged into the skin, used in a burner, rubbed onto bed sheets for blessings while you sleep, or a few drops can be added to your bath. It is also available in incense form as an aid to meditation.

The vowel sound u (as in you) can also be used during these meditations. This sound, according to Shaykh Hakim, is "Where our action meets and intermingles with the divine permission, the idhn," and it will unblock (and unlock) the soul through its vibrations, allowing you to connect with the greater soul of the world.

Enhancing Mystical Powers

The real truth of existence is sealed,

Until after many twists and turns of the road - Rumi

When our bodies, emotions, minds, and spirits are harmonious in themselves and in balance with one another, we are better able to find our way to the centre--to remember ourselves again and merge with the Beloved. And again, there are practices to help with this.

According to the twelfth-century mystic Abdul-Qadir, who founded the Qadiri Sufi order, the rose is the most magical, potent, and soul-filled of all, and "all dervishes use the rose (ward) as an emblem and symbol of the rhyming word wird ('concentration-exercises')."

The rose--the Mother of Scents--represents divinity itself. Tradition states that, at the beginning of the world, God created the soul of Prophecy, and that this soul gave birth to the 124,000 Prophets who have since walked the earth. So brightly did the soul of Prophecy shine that it began to perspire, and from the waters of these holy droplets grew the rose.

Every rose, therefore, is infused with divine power and carries the essence of the Prophets themselves. It is for this reason that the rose is considered the greatest ally for mystical experience, the most skilful healer, and the most accomplished teacher of the arts of love (which may be why we still give roses to our lovers today).

Rose water can be used throughout your soul's journey to help you balance any aspect of body, mind, emotions, or spirit, but it is of particular use in helping us attain the mystical state, where the sheets are thrown back to welcome our Beloved.

To make rose water, gather a few ounces of rose petals and place them in a bowl of spring or rain water to soak for at least a day and a night, then decant the liquid into a glass container. This elixir can be used directly on the skin, in bathing water, or drunk; ingestion will absorb the blessing (baraka) of the Prophets themselves, and the knowledge of God. Fresh rose petals can also be eaten, used as an ingredient in the dreaming pillows mentioned earlier, or sprinkled onto bed sheets so you sleep among the gods.